Mechanisms of Initial Dislocation Nucleation in Copper under Synergistic Effects of Cascade Collisions and Transmuted Helium
Citations
Wang Tiancheng,Yu Xu,Hu Tianyi,Huang Hai. Mechanisms of initial dislocation nucleation in copper under synergistic effects of cascade collisions and transmuted helium [J]. Copper Engineering,2026(3):39-47.
图1 预设一定浓度氦的单晶铜超胞模型(棕色代表Cu原子、蓝色代表He原子)
图2 不同氦浓度的铜在300 K下经5.0 keV的PKA所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律
图3 不同氦浓度的铜在300 K下级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
图4 300 K下含4000 appm氦的铜经不同能量PKA所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律
图5 不同能量PKA作用下含4000 appm氦的铜级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
图6 不同温度下含4000 appm氦的铜经5.0 keV PKA所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律
图7 不同温度下含4000 appm氦的铜级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
铜业工程 第3期 39-47
doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-3842.2026.03.005
材料制备与加工工程(Material Preparation and Process Engineering)
Key Laboratory of Materials Physics,Ministry of Education,School of Physics,Zhengzhou University,Zhengzhou450001,China
Citations
Wang Tiancheng,Yu Xu,Hu Tianyi,Huang Hai. Mechanisms of initial dislocation nucleation in copper under synergistic effects of cascade collisions and transmuted helium [J]. Copper Engineering,2026(3):39-47.
Abstract
Copper and copper alloys are considered the primary structural material for fusion reactor divertor heat sinks due to their excellent thermal conductivity, thermal stability, mechanical properties, and relatively good resistance to neutron irradiation. However, a lack of in-depth understanding regarding the mechanisms of displacement damage in copper induced by synergistic effects of neutron irradiation and transmuted helium still exists. In this study, the synergistic effects were investigated using molecular dynamics simulations, with a focus on dislocation nucleation mechanisms. Influences of transmuted helium concentration (2000~8000 appm), primary knock-on atom (PKA) energy (1.0~7.0 keV), and simulation temperature (100~900 K) were systematically examined. Results showed that increased helium concentration raised the number of point defects, enhanced pinning effect, and promoted dislocation density and the formation of complex entanglement structures. Higher PKA energy led to a notable rise in length and density of dislocation line. At lower temperatures, rising temperature promoted development of dislocation entanglement structures in the cascade center, while at higher temperatures, it facilitated dislocation annihilation and break-up, resulting in the collapse of these entanglement structures. These findings provided important insights for the design of irradiation-resistant copper alloys for fusion reactors.
偏滤器作为聚变堆核心组件,对聚变反应的稳定运行及反应堆服役寿命的影响极为关键。近年来,铜及其合金因具有高热导率、优异力学强度及较好的抗中子辐照性能,已成为偏滤器热沉部件首选材料[ 韦奕麒,韩芳,汤仲虬,等. 铜及其合金研究进展 [J]. 铜业工程,2024(5):40-62. Ueda Y,Schmid K,Balden M,et al. Baseline high heat flux and plasma facing materials for fusion [J]. Nuclear Fusion,2017,57(9):092006. Kalinin G,Matera R. Comparative analysis of copper alloys for the heat sink of plasma facing components in ITER [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,1998,258:345-350. 1-3]。然而,聚变堆内工况极为恶劣,材料不仅需承受高热负荷冲击,还要承受14.1 MeV中子轰击引发的离位损伤。这些离位损伤通常由大量空位与间隙原子构成,随后会进一步聚集成位错环、空洞等缺陷结构。与此同时,中子入射到材料中还可发生核嬗变(n,α)反应,产生大量氦原子。由于氦在金属中溶解度极低,在高温作用下,易在位错环、空洞等缺陷处聚集并长大为氦泡。此外,聚变示范堆(DEMO)的发展目标中,要求偏滤器中子辐照剂量较国际热核聚变实验堆(ITER)提高一个数量级(达到2.6×1022 n/m2)。为适应下一代聚变装置的苛刻服役工况,迫切需要研发抗中子辐照性能更优的铜基热沉材料[ Someya Y,Tobita K,Hiwatari R,et al. Fusion DEMO reactor design based on nuclear analysis [J]. Fusion Engineering and Design,2018,136:1306-1312. Ye Y H,Ma L,Tang T Z,et al. Characterization of microstructure and properties of Ti35 alloy and its high-fluence hydrogen irradiation-induced surface exfoliation [J]. The European Physical Journal Plus,2024,139(9):822. 4-5]。
辐照缺陷与氦的耦合作用通常会导致材料硬化、脆化、肿胀及表面起泡等现象,从而引发偏滤器热沉部件过早失效,严重影响聚变堆服役可靠性。因此,当前亟需深入研究铜基材料中子辐照损伤行为,以指导抗辐照铜基新材料的研发。事实上,已有不少科研人员针对铜合金的辐照损伤或氦效应展开过探索。例如,Brager等[ Brager H R,Heinisch H L,Garner F A. Effects of neutron irradiation at 450 ℃ and 16 dpa on the properties of various commercial copper alloys [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,1985,133:676-679. 6]发现商用铜合金在辐照下会出现较为明显的辐照肿胀(如Cu-0.1%Ag出现高达1%/dpa肿胀),而添加Be可有效抑制该效应。Ding等[ Ding M S,Du J P,Wan L,et al. Radiation-induced helium nanobubbles enhance ductility in submicron-sized single-crystalline copper [J]. Nano Letters,2016,16(7):4118-4124. 7]通过原位透射电子显微镜与分子动力学(MD)模拟发现,纳米氦泡可异常提高亚微米铜晶体的延展性,尤其对于所含氦泡尺寸处于亚10 nm的单晶铜,其具有更高强度、更稳定的塑性流动及更佳延展性。Li等[ Li B,Wang L,Jian W R,et al. Irradiation-initiated plastic deformation in prestrained single-crystal copper [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2016,368:60-65. Li B,Long X J,Shen Z W,et al. Interactions between displacement cascades and Σ3〈110〉 tilt grain boundaries in Cu [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2016,481:46-52. 8-9]的MD模拟表明,单晶铜中缺陷的形成及位错密度演化受预应变的大小和方向以及初级离位原子(PKA)的能量共同影响。例如,在5%的预应变下,一方面,位错密度在不同PKA能量下均随时间变化而逐渐增加;另一方面,PKA能量的增加会导致位错密度相应增加。此外,Shargh等[ Shargh A K,Bosić O,Abdolrahim N. Mechanisms of helium nanobubble growth and defect interactions in irradiated copper:a molecular dynamics study [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2023,574:154199. 10]的模拟结果指出,铜中纳米氦泡的生长及缺陷激活阈值取决于氦泡尺寸和氦空位比。Li等[ Li M,Hou Q,Cui J C,et al. Atomistic simulations of helium clustering in copper [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2020,482:17-24. 11]的原子模拟进一步显示,铜中氦团簇生长会诱发堆垛层错,并通过发射<110>取向的自间隙原子(SIA)团簇触发位错环的形成。尽管已有这些重要进展,但目前关于铜辐照缺陷与氦耦合效应的研究仍有限,许多基本机制(特别是原子尺度行为方面)仍然知之甚少。
本研究采用Kashinath等[ Kashinath A,Demkowicz M J. A predictive interatomic potential for He in Cu and Nb [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2011,19(3):035007. Yu X,Wang H L,Huang H. Investigating helium-induced thermal conductivity degradation in fusion-relevant copper:a molecular dynamics approach [J]. Materials,2025,18(15):3702. 12-13]所推导的EAM势函数对铜−氦体系进行描述。该势函数能精确描述Cu-Cu、Cu-He和He-He原子间相互作用,并嵌入了Ziegler-Biersack-Littmark排斥势,可有效实现级联碰撞过程模拟。为验证所用势函数的可靠性,预先计算了相关基本物理性质:Cu的晶格常数为3.615 Å、体模量为141.38 GPa,He在八面体间隙的形成能为4.16 eV。这些数值与实验及第一性原理结果吻合较好[ Kashinath A,Demkowicz M J. A predictive interatomic potential for He in Cu and Nb [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2011,19(3):035007. Yu X,Wang H L,Huang H. Investigating helium-induced thermal conductivity degradation in fusion-relevant copper:a molecular dynamics approach [J]. Materials,2025,18(15):3702. González C,Fernández-Pello D,Cerdeira M A,et al. Helium bubble clustering in copper from first principles [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2014,22(3):035019. 12-14],表明该势函数可用于本研究涉及的铜‑氦体系辐照损伤模拟。为构建铜−氦体系原子模型,首先建立了一个含250880个原子的28a0×28a0×28a0的单晶铜超胞(a0=3.615 Å);晶胞取向为[110]∥x、[10]∥y和[001]∥z,且各方向均施加周期性边界条件以反映块材特征。随后,在晶胞中随机引入一定浓度的He原子(图1)。在预先经过共轭梯度能量最小化处理后,体系接着在零压下采用Nose-Hoover恒压恒温系综(NPT)进行20.0 ps热弛豫,以达到体系平衡状态。
图1 预设一定浓度氦的单晶铜超胞模型(棕色代表Cu原子、蓝色代表He原子)
Fig. 1 Supercell model of single crystal copper with pre-defined concentration of helium (brown dots denote Cu;blue spheres denote He)
随后,在模拟体系中随机选取一个PKA,使其沿<135>晶向入射,以减小沟道效应,继而引发级联碰撞过程。其间,模型最外层约7.2 Å厚的区域通过Nosé-Hoover恒温器(NVT系综)维持恒温以促使体系热量耗散出去,而其余原子则在微正则系综(NVE)下弛豫,整个模拟过程持续22.0 ps。模拟共设置三组条件:1)在固定PKA能量为5.0 keV、温度为300 K前提下,考察氦原子浓度为0,2000,4000,6000和8000 appm的影响;2)在固定氦浓度为4000 appm、温度为300 K前提下,研究PKA能量为1.0、3.0、5.0和7.0 keV的影响;3)在固定氦浓度为4000 appm、PKA能量为3.0 keV前提下,考察温度为100、300、500、700和900 K的影响。每个条件均进行了10次独立模拟计算,以确保结果统计可靠。所选用参数范围均参考已有研究结果设定,以便进行对比分析。 其中,所选PKA的能量覆盖了聚变中子辐照产生PKA能谱中对缺陷积累贡献较显著的低能段,该范围被广泛用于揭示级联损伤的原子尺度基础机制[ Li B,Wang L,Jian W R,et al. Irradiation-initiated plastic deformation in prestrained single-crystal copper [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2016,368:60-65. Li B,Long X J,Shen Z W,et al. Interactions between displacement cascades and Σ3〈110〉 tilt grain boundaries in Cu [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2016,481:46-52. 8-9]。所有模拟均采用分子动力学开源代码LAMMPS进行计算[ Plimpton S. Fast parallel algorithms for short-range molecular dynamics [J]. Journal of Computational Physics,1995,117(1):1-19. 15],并结合可视化软件OVITO进行数据后处理分析[ Stukowski A. Visualization and analysis of atomistic simulation data with OVITO–the Open Visualization Tool [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2010,18(1):015012. 16]。同时,采用OVITO内置的位错提取算法(DXA)来提取和分析模拟过程中的位错结构及其演变行为。
2 结果与讨论
2.1 氦浓度影响
图2显示了不同氦浓度的铜模拟体系在300 K下经5.0 keV的PKA引发级联碰撞后,在内部所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律(注:图中阴影区域为平均值的标准偏差,下同)。从图中可看出,不同氦浓度下各曲线具有大致相同的演化特征,即先快速升高,再下降,形成一个较低的峰,然后再逐渐升高。出现这种现象的原因可能是:当PKA引入后,级联中心区域产生大量无序区域,并同时形成大量点缺陷和位错;当点缺陷扩散到位错线附近时,会被位错核心吸收,导致位错攀移,这使得位错长度增加,并发生弯曲[ Denton C D,Heredia-Avalos S,Moreno-Marín J C,et al. Influence of the distance of a collisional cascade to an edge dipole in α-Fe on dislocation mobility and defect production [J]. Nuclear Materials and Energy,2024,39:101663. 17];位错密度增加后,位错之间相互作用增强,发生动态恢复,位错通过滑移或攀移湮灭,导致密度下降[ Koizumi T,Ogoda K,Kuroda M. Permanent strength of metals:a case study on FCC metals processed by severe plastic deformation [J]. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A,2022,53(6):2004-2017. Zhang M Y,Zhong M,Yuan S,et al. Influence of initial defects on the mechanical properties of single crystal copper:discrete dislocation dynamics study [J]. Materials Science Forum,2018,913:627-635. 18-19]。先前的研究表明,在级联碰撞过程中,氦原子有聚集形成较大尺寸团簇的趋势[ Wei G,Hu S L,Cai G X,et al. Carbon nanomaterials in nickel and iron helping to disperse or release He atoms [J]. Materials Today Communications,2022,32:104024. Hatton P,Perez D,Frolov T,et al. He bubble-induced phase transformation of W grain boundaries revealed by accelerated molecular dynamics [J]. Acta Materialia,2024,269:119821. 20-21],同时,还会与空位等点缺陷形成团簇,这些团簇内部往往具有很高压力[ Li L L,Peng L,Shi J Y,et al. Large helium-vacancy clusters coalescence during helium bubble evolution under cascade in iron with edge dislocation:a MD simulation [J]. Computational Materials Science,2021,197:110601. Cui D W,Wang Y W,Cao Z Q,et al. Origin and fate of loop punching in Mo-5Re alloy [J]. Acta Materialia,2025,283:120550. 22-23]。在团簇内部高压以及次级、三级离位原子等因素共同作用下[ Manna M,Pal S. Improvement in radiation resistance of nanocrystalline Cu using grain boundary engineering:an atomistic simulation study [J]. Journal of Materials Science,2022,57(42):19832-19845. 24],铜基体内部会形成强大应力场,促进新位错形成,导致位错密度再次上升[ Hatton P,Perez D,Frolov T,et al. He bubble-induced phase transformation of W grain boundaries revealed by accelerated molecular dynamics [J]. Acta Materialia,2024,269:119821. 21]。从图2中还可以发现,第一个位错密度峰出现的时间随氦浓度的升高而延后,峰值则随氦浓度的升高而提升,最终存活的位错密度随氦浓度的升高而增加。这是由于He原子与空位形成的HenVm团簇会阻碍点缺陷复合,当He浓度升高时,体系中的点缺陷(即空位与SIA)数量增加[ Jiang M X,Liu L X,Qiu R Y,et al. Impacts of helium and hydrogen on the defect evolution in tungsten under high-energy cascades:a molecular dynamics study [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2025,611:155814. 25],从而引发更多位错形成。
图2 不同氦浓度的铜在300 K下经5.0 keV的PKA所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律
Fig. 2 Evolution of dislocation density induced by a 5.0 keV PKA in copper with different helium concentrations at 300 K
为了进一步阐释氦浓度变化对级联碰撞过程的影响,本研究分析了不同氦浓度下铜模拟体系中四个阶段位错分布情况,如图3所示。从图中可以看出:初始时刻[图3(a1~a4)],当氦浓度较低时,没有明显的位错线出现;而当氦浓度较高时(如8000 appm),会出现较多位错线,且随机分布在体系中。热峰阶段[图3(b1~b4)],级联中心均出现位错线,且随氦浓度升高,位错线数量不仅增加,而且总长度也更长。 退火阶段[图3(c1~c4)],级联中心位错减少,且随氦浓度升高,位错存活数量更多,种类也更复杂。 稳态时刻[图3(d1~d4)],在氦浓度较低时,体系中没有明显位错残留(如2000 appm);而当氦浓度升高时,级联中心出现复杂的位错纠缠结构。这些位错纠缠结构主要由Shockley不全位错主导,这与Manna等[ Manna M,Pal S. Improvement in radiation resistance of nanocrystalline Cu using grain boundary engineering:an atomistic simulation study [J]. Journal of Materials Science,2022,57(42):19832-19845. 24]的研究结果类似。除此之外,当氦浓度较高时,位错纠缠结构中还出现了Stair-rod位错和Frank位错环。Stair-rod位错通常在相交的{111}面内由两个不全位错相互作用形成,其结果是产生一个不可动位错,并导致位错堆积[ Puigvi M A,Osetsky Y N,Serra A. Interactions between vacancy and glissile interstitial clusters in iron and copper [J]. Materials Science and Engineering:A,2004,365(1/2):101-106. 26];Frank位错环的出现是由于材料内部空位层(负Frank位错)或间隙原子层(正Frank位错)的坍塌或过饱和所致,这些位错环可能导致材料硬化[ Tipping P G. Understanding and mitigating ageing in nuclear power plants:materials and operational aspects of plant life management (PLiM) [M]. Cambridge,UK:Woodhead Publishing;Elsevier,2010. 27]。当氦浓度较高时,体系中存在更多的空位等点缺陷,为形成更多位错环提供了可能;而位错环会阻碍其他位错线滑移,产生钉扎效应,进而导致位错弯曲,形成更为扭曲的位错纠缠结构[ Li Y P,Ran G,Guo Y J,et al. The evolution of dislocation loop and its interaction with pre-existing dislocation in He+-irradiated molybdenum:in-situ TEM observation and molecular dynamics simulation [J]. Acta Materialia,2020,201:462-476. 28]。
图3 不同氦浓度的铜在300 K下级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
Fig. 3 Distribution of dislocations in copper systems at 300 K,shown at different stages of a cascade collision with different helium concentrations:(a1~d1) 2000 appm;(a2~d2) 4000 appm;(a3~d3) 6000 appm;(a4~d4) 8000 appm
2.2 PKA能量影响
图4显示了300 K下含4000 appm氦浓度的铜模拟体系分别由不同能量PKA引发级联碰撞后,在内部所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律。从图中可看出,各曲线整体趋势与图2中所得结论大致类似,都呈现先上升再下降,最后再上升的趋势。当PKA能量增加时,热峰出现的时间推迟,峰值也更高,最终剩余的位错也更多。特别是当PKA能量为1.0 keV时,在热峰之后位错密度上升趋势并不明显,在某一稳定值附近波动,表明此时所产生的位错数量相对稳定;而当PKA能量增加时,由于初始点缺陷的数量也增加,这会明显影响级联碰撞区域的尺寸和形态:高PKA能量通常会导致更大、更复杂的离位级联区,由此深度影响位错的形成,这与以往研究结果一致[ Hu N W,Deng H Q,Wang C L,et al. Atomic simulation of helium trapping in displacement cascades [J]. RSC Advances,2016,6(32):27113-27118. Jia T X,Wang Z J,Xue Y Y,et al. The influence of temperature and energy on defect evolution and clustering during cascade in GaAs [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2021,502:198-204. 29-30]。其中,自间隙原子(SIA)倾向于形成可滑移的间隙原子簇[ Bai X M,Voter A F,Hoagland R G,et al. Efficient annealing of radiation damage near grain boundaries via interstitial emission [J]. Science,2010,327(5973):1631-1634. 31],其在级联碰撞退火阶段可能进一步演化成位错环,而更多的点缺陷也为形成更多位错提供了基础。
图4 300 K下含4000 appm氦的铜经不同能量PKA所诱生位错密度随时间演变的规律
Fig. 4 Evolution of dislocation density induced by PKAs at varying energies in a copper system containing 4000 appm helium at 300 K
为了进一步阐释PKA能量变化对级联碰撞过程的影响,本研究也分析了不同PKA能量下铜模拟体系四个阶段中位错分布情况,如图5所示。从图中可以发现:初始时刻[图5(a1~a4)],体系中没有明显位错出现;热峰阶段[图5(b1~b4)],级联中心附近区域会出现位错,主要在PKA能量较高(≥ 5.0 keV)时出现,且当PKA能量越高时,不仅位错数量增多,位错总长度也会更长;退火阶段[图5(c1~c4)],此时级联中心位错数量较热峰阶段呈减少趋势;稳态时刻[图5(d1~d4)],级联中心出现异常密集位错,组成复杂位错纠缠结构,且PKA能量升高时,位错结构更复杂、尺寸更大,这一现象与Manna等[ Manna M,Pal S. Improvement in radiation resistance of nanocrystalline Cu using grain boundary engineering:an atomistic simulation study [J]. Journal of Materials Science,2022,57(42):19832-19845. 24]的研究结果一致。
图5 不同能量PKA作用下含4000 appm氦的铜级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
Fig. 5 Distribution of dislocations in a copper system containing 4000 appm helium,shown at different stages of a cascade collision induced by PKAs at varying energies:(a1~d1) 1.0 keV;(a2~d2) 3.0 keV;(a3~d3) 5.0 keV;(a4~d4) 7.0 keV
Fig. 6 Evolution of dislocation density induced by a 5.0 keV PKA in copper systems containing 4000 appm helium at different temperatures
为了进一步阐释模拟温度变化对级联碰撞过程的影响,本研究分析了不同模拟温度下铜模拟体系四个阶段中位错分布情况,如图7所示。从图中可以看出,当模拟温度较低时(≤500 K),体系最终存活的位错主要聚集在级联中心附近,且组成的位错纠缠结构随温度升高变得更复杂、尺寸也更大。出现这一现象的原因可能是:当温度升高,原子热运动加剧,使得点缺陷的迁移率提高;SIA和空位开始移动,并形成更大的团簇,如间隙型位错环,这些位错环可以相互合并或与辐照前期生成的位错相互作用,导致级联中心位错纠缠结构扩大[ Li Y P,Ran G,Guo Y J,et al. The evolution of dislocation loop and its interaction with pre-existing dislocation in He+-irradiated molybdenum:in-situ TEM observation and molecular dynamics simulation [J]. Acta Materialia,2020,201:462-476. 28]。此外,位错滑移和攀爬可能受到热激活的影响,导致位错更易运动和重组,从而促进位错纠缠结构的扩展[ Szajewski B A,Pavia F,Curtin W A. Robust atomistic calculation of dislocation line tension [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2015,23(8):085008. 32]。当温度较高时(>500 K),会在中心区外出现小尺寸位错,最终级联中心的位错纠缠结构相对于500 K以下的体系表现为尺寸更小,也更简单。出现这一现象的原因可能是:高温提供了足够的能量,使得缺陷(包括SIA、空位和较小的位错环)的迁移和湮灭速率显著加快,位错之间可能会发生湮灭反应[ Bao W C,Wang X G,Lu Y,et al. Effect of native carbon vacancies on evolution of defects in ZrC1-x under He ion irradiation and annealing [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology,2022,119:87-97. 33]。这导致了图6中900 K温度下出现位错密度随时间异常演化这一现象。此外,在较高温度下晶格中的应力可能得到释放,位错线的弓出和运动变得更为容易。同时,温度较高时,氦团簇尺寸也会更大,成为新的应力源,使得一些较长的位错线断裂形成较短的位错线。这可能是温度较高时级联中心并未出现复杂位错纠缠结构的因素之一。
图7 不同温度下含4000 appm氦的铜级联碰撞不同阶段所诱生的位错分布情况
Fig. 7 Distribution of dislocations in a copper system containing 4000 appm helium,shown at different stages of a cascade collision at different temperatures:(a1~d1) 100 K;(a2~d2) 300 K;(a3~d3) 500 K;(a4~d4) 700 K;(a5~d5) 900 K
UedaY,SchmidK,BaldenM,et al. Baseline high heat flux and plasma facing materials for fusion [J]. Nuclear Fusion,2017,57(9):092006.
[3]
KalininG,MateraR. Comparative analysis of copper alloys for the heat sink of plasma facing components in ITER [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,1998,258:345-350.
[4]
SomeyaY,TobitaK,HiwatariR,et al. Fusion DEMO reactor design based on nuclear analysis [J]. Fusion Engineering and Design,2018,136:1306-1312.
[5]
YeY H,MaL,TangT Z,et al. Characterization of microstructure and properties of Ti35 alloy and its high-fluence hydrogen irradiation-induced surface exfoliation [J]. The European Physical Journal Plus,2024,139(9):822.
[6]
BragerH R,HeinischH L,GarnerF A. Effects of neutron irradiation at 450 ℃ and 16 dpa on the properties of various commercial copper alloys [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,1985,133:676-679.
LiB,WangL,JianW R,et al. Irradiation-initiated plastic deformation in prestrained single-crystal copper [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2016,368:60-65.
[9]
LiB,LongX J,ShenZ W,et al. Interactions between displacement cascades and Σ3〈110〉 tilt grain boundaries in Cu [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2016,481:46-52.
[10]
SharghA K,BosićO,AbdolrahimN. Mechanisms of helium nanobubble growth and defect interactions in irradiated copper:a molecular dynamics study [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2023,574:154199.
[11]
LiM,HouQ,CuiJ C,et al. Atomistic simulations of helium clustering in copper [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2020,482:17-24.
[12]
KashinathA,DemkowiczM J. A predictive interatomic potential for He in Cu and Nb [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2011,19(3):035007.
GonzálezC,Fernández-PelloD,CerdeiraM A,et al. Helium bubble clustering in copper from first principles [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2014,22(3):035019.
[15]
PlimptonS. Fast parallel algorithms for short-range molecular dynamics [J]. Journal of Computational Physics,1995,117(1):1-19.
[16]
StukowskiA. Visualization and analysis of atomistic simulation data with OVITO–the Open Visualization Tool [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2010,18(1):015012.
[17]
DentonC D,Heredia-AvalosS,Moreno-MarínJ C,et al. Influence of the distance of a collisional cascade to an edge dipole in α-Fe on dislocation mobility and defect production [J]. Nuclear Materials and Energy,2024,39:101663.
[18]
KoizumiT,OgodaK,KurodaM. Permanent strength of metals:a case study on FCC metals processed by severe plastic deformation [J]. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A,2022,53(6):2004-2017.
[19]
ZhangM Y,ZhongM,YuanS,et al. Influence of initial defects on the mechanical properties of single crystal copper:discrete dislocation dynamics study [J]. Materials Science Forum,2018,913:627-635.
[20]
WeiG,HuS L,CaiG X,et al. Carbon nanomaterials in nickel and iron helping to disperse or release He atoms [J]. Materials Today Communications,2022,32:104024.
[21]
HattonP,PerezD,FrolovT,et al. He bubble-induced phase transformation of W grain boundaries revealed by accelerated molecular dynamics [J]. Acta Materialia,2024,269:119821.
[22]
LiL L,PengL,ShiJ Y,et al. Large helium-vacancy clusters coalescence during helium bubble evolution under cascade in iron with edge dislocation:a MD simulation [J]. Computational Materials Science,2021,197:110601.
[23]
CuiD W,WangY W,CaoZ Q,et al. Origin and fate of loop punching in Mo-5Re alloy [J]. Acta Materialia,2025,283:120550.
[24]
MannaM,PalS. Improvement in radiation resistance of nanocrystalline Cu using grain boundary engineering:an atomistic simulation study [J]. Journal of Materials Science,2022,57(42):19832-19845.
[25]
JiangM X,LiuL X,QiuR Y,et al. Impacts of helium and hydrogen on the defect evolution in tungsten under high-energy cascades:a molecular dynamics study [J]. Journal of Nuclear Materials,2025,611:155814.
[26]
PuigviM A,OsetskyY N,SerraA. Interactions between vacancy and glissile interstitial clusters in iron and copper [J]. Materials Science and Engineering:A,2004,365(1/2):101-106.
[27]
TippingP G. Understanding and mitigating ageing in nuclear power plants:materials and operational aspects of plant life management (PLiM) [M]. Cambridge,UK:Woodhead Publishing;Elsevier,2010.
[28]
LiY P,RanG,GuoY J,et al. The evolution of dislocation loop and its interaction with pre-existing dislocation in He+-irradiated molybdenum:in-situ TEM observation and molecular dynamics simulation [J]. Acta Materialia,2020,201:462-476.
[29]
HuN W,DengH Q,WangC L,et al. Atomic simulation of helium trapping in displacement cascades [J]. RSC Advances,2016,6(32):27113-27118.
[30]
JiaT X,WangZ J,XueY Y,et al. The influence of temperature and energy on defect evolution and clustering during cascade in GaAs [J]. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B:Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,2021,502:198-204.
[31]
BaiX M,VoterA F,HoaglandR G,et al. Efficient annealing of radiation damage near grain boundaries via interstitial emission [J]. Science,2010,327(5973):1631-1634.
[32]
SzajewskiB A,PaviaF,CurtinW A. Robust atomistic calculation of dislocation line tension [J]. Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,2015,23(8):085008.
[33]
BaoW C,WangX G,LuY,et al. Effect of native carbon vacancies on evolution of defects in ZrC1-x under He ion irradiation and annealing [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology,2022,119:87-97.